I believe this is an unedited version of my final agriculture paper and I had to delete the pictures because they were not functioning and the font was not cooperating but here is a small part of my final product of my India experience.
Tibet spans nearly two
million square kilometers between India and China. It is a vast, bleak
wasteland of unpredictable weather. Farmers work on harvesting turnips,
potatoes and grains such as barley, wheat, and buckwheat in the lower elevations,
which is very limited. Tibetan nomads tend to rely mostly on animal husbandry
to feed their family a diet of meat,
milk, and butter, a common diet for the majority of Tibetans. In 1959 hundreds
of thousands Tibetans left Tibet due to the Chinese invasion and suppression of
the Tibetan people. The India Government gave them refuge by offering them land
they could call home. As a result, these Tibetan refugees have had to find ways
to make money and to support their families. In Bylakuppe, India, Tibetan
refugees cleared the land and tilled the soil for farm use. The Green
Revolution was at full fledge when they arrived in 1961, so the Tibetans immediately
adopted fertilizers, high-yielding seeds, and chemical pesticides into their
farming habits. Farming has been a main source of income for many of the
refugees in Bylakuppe since then. In 2002 the Dalai Lama put forth the Organic
Farming Policy that resisted further use of these chemical fertilizers,
pesticides and genetically engineered seeds. The Organic Research and Training
Centre (ORTC), a government funded farm, quickly followed His Holiness’ request
and has been training Indian locals and Tibetan refugees in their organic
practices since 2002. In this report I will briefly explain what farming is
like in Tibet and what it is currently like in Bylakuppe, India. I will then go
on to detail a few of the systems and techniques used at the ORTC, the farm I
volunteered at for two months, and also briefly mention practices used by other
organic and non-organic farmers in Bylakuppe.
Farming in Tibet
“Tibet is a rugged, largely desolate, and
barren highland plain. The very limited agricultural sections are found in some
of the valleys adjacent to China. The precipitation in Tibet decreases from
approximately 800 mm in the south to less than 300 mm in the north. The
temperatures are low, with almost no real summer. Vegetables are grown at the
bases of highlands, barley is grown in the higher elevations. On account of the
sparsely scattered vegetation, Shepherds move their flocks up and down the
slopes with the season” (Shen 1951). They depend highly on animal husbandry to
plow fields and transport harvested crops. In Tibet they use a dzo, crossbreed of a domestic bull and a
yak that is known for its strength, to help carry out the necessary plowing of
the fields. Donkeys are commonly used for transporting the harvested grain to
the threshing ground. Today, there are around 21 million head of livestock used
by the Tibetans (Mayhew 2008).
Due to the harsh weather and minimal
vegetables available, most Tibetans rely mainly on dri milk (female yak milk),
butter tea, barley, and meat, giving them proper amounts of fat and
carbohydrates to survive the winters. Most Tibetans farm their own yak and
sheep allowing them to move from higher to lower elevation as the seasons
change, and depend on their herds for food. The poorer people tend to farm and
due to this they are more tied down to their land. The farmers are limited in
what they can plant because of the weather so most grow barley, turnips,
potatoes, wheat, buckwheat, and millet (Shen 1953). The soil is very poor so to
fertilize the land they add human dung, ashes from cows, and some silt from
floodwaters. They know very little about crop rotation and only use it
infrequently (Shen 1951).
History
of Bylakuppe Farming
In 1959 the Dalai Lama and tens
of thousands of Tibetan citizens fled to India to escape the Chinese invasion
(United State Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 2003). Previous to
moving to India, the Tibetan people's main industry was animal husbandry and
herding (Himalayan Institute 2010). Now
that Tibetan citizens no longer have the expansive land required for herding,
they have had to learn how to farm on the limited land offered by the Indian
government.
In Tibet families were able to
provide organic crops for themselves. Land was unreserved in Tibet allowing as
much land as required to be used for herding. Some families used small plots of
land for farming, but the diet was based mainly on meat and butter tea,
followed by organically grown barley and seasonal crops. Now in India the
available land is not large enough to herd so farming is the next option. Stu
Nicholls reports in a brief history of Bylakuppe the difficulties of sustaining
a family solely off of farming. Most original families (families who were
present at the inauguration of the refugee community) received a small crop of
land for agricultural use but due to the lack of irrigation facilities families
had to engage in other activities such as trading, restaurants, shop keeping,
etc. (Nicholls 2011). When the Tibetan refugees arrived in Bylakuppe they were
once again farming organically as they had done in Tibet.
In the early 1960’s famine began
spreading throughout India so in the 1960’s and 1970's the Indian government
quickly resisted by introducing high-yielding seeds, irrigation and chemical
pesticides and fertilizers (CGIAR 2010). The Green Revolution allowed farmers to
harvest large quantities and export excess crops for a profit. The idea of
high-yielding harvests is how the name “Green Revolution” was coined,
signifying an all-encompassing period of high-yield seeds, fertilizers and
larger profits from the season’s harvest. Tibetan farmers quickly caught on not
aware that it would cause “soil degradation, health problems, and decreasing
yields,” due to the misuse and overuse of chemical products particularly
pesticides (CTA 2009). To help with sustaining farms in Bylakuppe the Dickey
Larsoe Co-operative Society Ltd. was installed and began extending credit to purchase
seeds, fertilizers, and other agricultural inputs. As a result the farmers were
obligated to return agricultural products to the Dickey Larsoe Co-operative
Society Ltd. warehouses where they can sell the products to open markets for
gain (Nicholls 2011). The Dicky Larsoe Co-operative Society still exists and
operates today.
Current Philosophy of
Organic Farming in Bylakuppe
In
2002 the Dalai Lama made a statement encouraging a balanced and healthy diet,
also encouraging the Tibetan refugees to resist the practices of the Green
Revolution (Central Tibetan Administration. 2012). The objectives of the Dalai Lama's organic
farming policy as stated by the Federation of Tibetan Co-Operatives in India
Ltd. are as follows:
·
To protect,
preserve and rejuvenate the environment and biodiversity.
·
To offer
assistance and support to the international movement against consumerism. More
specifically by persistently opposing the use of chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, herbicides, hybrid and genetically engineered seeds, etc.
·
To make sure
that the “future Tibet” is a storehouse of organic grains to the rest of the
world.
·
To achieve
sustainable livelihood in the Tibetan settlements in India by turning the
present agriculture land holding into a source of sustainable income
generation.
·
To achieve
in making organic farming, animal husbandry and other allied activities as
remunerative opportunities. Thereby we can encourage the educated Tibetan youth
to live in settlements. (Federation of Tibetan Co-Operatives Ltd. 2009)
The Organic Research and Training
Centre (ORTC), an organic awareness and training center for both Indians and
Tibetans, have taken these objectives seriously and started to apply them to
the Tibetan Farm Project almost immediately. The Tibetan Farm Project is an 80-acre
plot of land dedicated to organic farming. It is completely run by the ORTC,
which is funded by the Tibetan Government for the use of training seminars. The
Tibetan Farm Project transitioned to completely organic farming in 2002 because
of the Dalai Lama's call to produce healthy organic food just as they did in
Tibet. Bylakuppe is the largest Tibetan refugee settlement in India and is the
sixth largest organic farming community in India (Federation of Tibetan
Co-Operatives 2009). As I worked closely with the ORTC, Damdul, the ORTC
manager, impressed the importance of saving the soil fertility through organic
farming so the quality and quantity of a harvest will remain steady instead of
decreasing over time (as it is perceived by the Bylakuppe farmers that chemical
farming decreases soil fertility). Lhakpa (2012), a farmer of 22 years and a
staff member at the ORTC, backed up this statement by saying that on his
family’s farm of 6.5 acres his parents originally got 180 bags of maize from the
field per harvest and now he is only receiving 137 bags. He claims that this is
due to the decreasing soil fertility though he tries to restore it by using
17-17-17 fertilizer, compost and urea. He considers this one of the largest
struggles that he has had to endure because instead of relying only on his farm
for work he has had to go outside and work on the ORTC farm to support his
family. Farmers in Bylakuppe depend largely on their farms and decreasing soil
fertility causes them to have to look outside of their homes for work. The
majority of the current farmers can only depend on their farm for a small
income because harvests are not as large as they once were.
The Organic Research and Training Center in Bylakuppe is playing a key
role in educating the community about organic farming. They have trained Tibetan exiles on the
Tibetan Farm Project to rotate crops, create natural composts, and construct
proper irrigation systems utilizing India's vastly different environment
(Himalayan Institute. 2011). While all
this talk of organic farming, pesticide free, and feeding the whole world is a
great idea, there are still many concerns and problems that have to be
confronted. Lobsang Chodack, a family farmer from Mundgod, the largest Tibetan
organic farm community, not far from Bylakuppe, emphasizes his concerns with
organic farming stating that it requires more paid help to take care of the
farm and much less product is produced than from fertilized farms. In order to
maintain his organic farm teak trees must surround his farm in order to keep
the cows out; the natural pesticide must be a mixture of 5kg cow dung, 1kg cow
urine, and 1 kg jiggery to detract pests and still pests attack his crops (McKnown.
Mundgod's Tibetan Farmers. 2011). Chodack shows that on his farm alone he is
confronted with three specific challenges that conflict with the Tibetan
organic farming objectives. First, he is not producing a large enough crop to
contribute to the storehouse of organic grains for the world. Pests are
invading his crop causing small harvests. Second, because pests still invade
his farm even when using natural pesticides it makes it difficult to remain
resistant to falling back on using chemical fertilizers and pesticides because it
is either lose the whole harvest or use fertilizers. Last, since Chodack needs
extra assistance on the farm to resist the pests it does not provide a
sustainable income due to the increased overhead costs. As a result of all this
Tibetan youth do not find farming a sustainable enough income-providing
profession to encourage them in remaining on the settlements (McKown.CST.
2011). I was able to see this as I talked to several girls and hear of their interest
of moving away and becoming nurses. They see moving out of Bylakuppe as a way
to receive a higher education and more sustainable living. For some families it
is important for their children to learn the trade of farming, like Tseten(2012),
a past participant of the ORTC and a current employee, and for others they just
want to make enough money to send their kids away to school, like Lhakpa (2012).
In order to remedy these conflicts
put forth by organic farmers the ORTC tests various pesticides and fertilizers
to see what works best with various plants and soils. One of their current
intentions is to test many varieties of a single plant and see what grows best
in the area and sells for the most (Damdul 2012). In the community maize is
commonly grown but most of the farmers are still farming chemically. Damdul
(2012) fears that if they continue farming maize that all the soil fertility
will be gone because maize “takes and takes and never gives”. On the ORTC farm
they are testing medicinal plants and horticulture crops. A few of the
medicinal crops include a wet paddy rice which is good for pregnancy, brahmi
used for helping memory, insulin used for diabetic patients, and turmeric used
for an antiseptic. Horticulture crops include a dry paddy rice, basil,
lemongrass, silver oak, bitter gourd, and red hibiscus. Although the ORTC is
trying their best to emphasize the importance of organic farming there is no
denying the extra labor it requires to maintain an organic farm, causing a loss
in profit for the farmers.
In the community maize is commonly
grown due to the little attention it requires and local statistics - no disease
or pests affect the maize in Bylakuppe (Lhakpa and Damdul 2012). Renzin (2012),
an organic farmer in Purang camp, stated that after five years maize will grow
just as well organically as it does chemically but many farmers are not willing
to take the five year loss of having a smaller harvest. Renzin and Phurbu
(2012) have completely converted to organic farming and give living testament
that their farms are currently producing equivalent harvests as to chemical
harvests are. The chemical farmers I interviewed were not in fear that organic
farming does not work, but it was taking the risk of losing part of the income
for several years that prevents them from making the transition.
Farming
Systems
Animal Husbandry
The ORTC depends highly on their cattle for a source of manure, milk,
and labor. The farm owns approximately 20 cattle from which the herdsmen gather
their urine and manure every day for the making of pesticides, compost, methane
gas, and slurry (a mixture of 1 part dung to 9 parts water). Milk is collected
for use in tea and also to sell to the dairy market. The cattle are also very
commonly used for plowing the fields. Though the ORTC owns a tractor, having
cattle allows them to reach areas that are more difficult to reach with a large
machine. The landscape is not always easy for a tractor to move around in
because of tight paths, tree and foliage overgrowth, and the hilly environment.
In the community many of the local
farmers have tractors and many do not, but nearly every farmer has at least a
few cows. During the daytime in Bylakuppe cows are spotted in every field
grazing or laboring. Though it is not a rule it is very common that the cows in
Bylakuppe leave their cattle shed around 8 a.m. and then return back home
around 3 p.m. just in time for the herdsmen to have tea (this was true for the
ORTC farm). By allowing the cattle to feast on the wild grass and foliage most
of the day it gives the cows a nutritious diet providing “quality dung” to be
used for compost (Damdul 2012).
Lhakpa (2012) explained how even though he
does not have an organic farm it is still very important to have cattle to
provide manure for the use of compost. I also spoke to Tenzin (2012) who
emphasized the importance of using compost even if the farm was not organic
because it helps restore the natural nutrients to the ground. Using quality
manure is very beneficial to the land, considering its degrading fertility. The
organic farmers I interviewed all said that by switching to organic farming the
fertility of the soil would be prolonged. The big question that needs to be
answered is that by going organic does quantity and quality begin to be reduced?
According, to Renzin and Phurbu (2012) quantity is smaller for about five years
but after that the quantity and quality is the same and the soil becomes
richer. Lhakpa (2012) says during his parents’ time they got 180 bags from the
6.5 acres per harvest and now it has come down to 137 bags. Lhakpa does not
farm organically in fear that he will lose part of that season’s harvest,
resulting in less profit for the season.
In India, animal husbandry is very
important to the average farmer. In Bylakuppe itself about half the community
owns farms and depends on cows for the labor and manure. The benefits of
compost are important to both organic and non-organic farmers to supply extra
nutrients to the ground.
Water
systems
In
Bylakuppe the watering systems varied far and wide. Most of the poorer farmers just
depend on the monsoon while the middle class farmers tend to have irrigation
systems. The richer farmers might have drip systems but this is rare. The ORTC
uses irrigation in a few areas but mostly depends on the rain.
The
ORTC is divided into a medicinal plants experimental farm and a horticulture
farm. The medicinal plants require a lot of care and watering so water tanks
are sprinkled throughout the field and filled as needed to allow convenient
hose watering. The horticulture farm depends on the monsoon but this season a
lot of watering had to be done by tractor because the monsoon came so late
(August instead of May). Irrigation is only available four hours during the day
due to the availability of electricity, so the farmers take strict advantage of
this by hooking up large pipes and directing it towards the necessary areas.
Most
areas of Bylakuppe are very fertile and workable but in the cases that they are
not, bunds, dirt mounds that extend the length of the field, can be made to
restrict water loss. Damdul explained a water and soil conservation technique
commonly used in slightly steep and rugged terrain.
This type of bund he called a Contour
Bond where it follows the contour of the hill. The bund helps hold the water in
the farming area to help increase the workability and fertility of the soil.
The trenches placed about 10 feet from the bund are designed to catch heavy rainfall
and prevent it from deteriorating the bund. It is common for these trenches to
also be use for in situ composting.
These trenches provide a home for the microbes in the dry season and during the
rainier season the microbes live in the field where they can fertilize the
soil. The diversion channel is a place where water can be strained of the silt
and collected for drinking water or reused in the field.
One
other watering system used in Bylakuppe was a drip system used to water a silver
oak tree plantation but this is extremely rare. The most common type of
watering systems is flood irrigation and others relied solely on the monsoon
every season.
Electrical/Gas
(conservation)
One
of the most economical and interesting things I learned about on the ORTC farm
was the use of biogas. Cow dung is very high in methane so they used this to an
advantage. Dung cannot be used directly on the farm for at least 10 days so the
dung is placed in a large cement holding place where the gases are naturally released
into a cement dome and directed through a pipe to the kitchen area. The methane
gas can then be used to cook food on their gas stove.
The methods of the farm are very
economical and self-sustaining. Under U.S. law (which they follow as a high
standard) cow dung cannot be directly placed into compost so they first make a
slurry of 10 percent dung and 90 percent water and place it in a cement dome
where it can build up methane gas. Once the microbes sufficiently breakdown the
organic matter and release the methane it can be placed into fertilizer where
it can contribute to growing plants. The plants are later sold and the remains
are fed to the cows where the cycle can start again. It is a brilliant way of recycling
a single product, dung.
Manual
Labor
Damdul (2012) was constantly emphasizing
that everything on the farm is done manually and it was very true. Everyday eight
farmers, two herdsmen, and about 5-15 laborers would show up to plow the farm
using the cattle, to pull weeds, to plant seeds, to irrigate, to prune crops, to
transplant crops, etc.. They were there from Thursday to Monday from 8:30 a.m.
to 5:30 p.m., except for a few holidays. During rain storms farmers would take
shelter under a tree or shed but once the rain stopped it was back to the
field. I never realized the intense work that goes into horticulture farming
especially when it depends on the hand of a few workers. Damdul always mentions
how there are never enough workers. The laborers choose when they want to come
and when they do not, and they typically do not make anyone aware of their
plans. So, one day on the farm there will be 12 staff and the next there will
be 25 staff.
The
one piece of machinery the ORTC farm does have is a tractor. This becomes very
beneficial for the horticulture fields when it comes time to weeding and tilling
the soil but many areas are too difficult to reach with the tractor so cattle
are used for the plowing. In my whole time on the farm I never saw the tractor
used.
Techniques
Vegetative
propagation
Vegetative propagation is a technique
commonly used on the ORTC farm. I experienced this in two separate occasions:
one with Stevia and one with Basmati Flavored Leaf. When propagating the Stevia
we used ‘cuttings’ by slicing off the main portion of the parent plant and then
dividing the leafy portions of the plant into smaller 4-inch segments that can
then be planted, and new roots and leaves will grow. This does not require any
roots, just a clean, angled cut of the woody segment of the plant that can be
planted in bags (a mixture of 15% sand, 15% compost, and 70% soil) immediately
following the cut. By making a clean, sharp, angled cut the plant can absorb as
much nutrients as possible so that the roots can quickly develop. Damdul (2012)
informed me that his purpose in doing this is to plant two acres of stevia. On
the experimental medicinal plot there are about 20 stevia plants and from these
I propagated about 70 new plants. This process will have to be repeated several
times to get the quantity needed for two acres. Currently, the ORTC does not
export their products to the US but by just selling the product in India they
make 150 rupees per kilogram.
In propagating the Basmati Flavored Leaf
a cutting of the root must be included. If the root is transplanted then the
plant will have a 90% chance of survival. Much like the Stevia I planted it
into the bags containing 15% sand, 15% compost, and 70% soil and watered them
sufficiently.
The Stevia took root after about 10 days
and new growth could be seen. I estimate that about 70% survived. As for the
Basmati Flavored Leaf, I was not there long enough to see if it took root.
Liquid
manure
Liquid manure is a way to supply
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and trace elements that provide nutrients for plant
development. It is a way to inject the soil with a simple and beneficial
bio-dynamic source of food. On the ORTC we made ‘Jeeva Amruth” liquid manure.
The ingredients consisted of 3 kg cow dung, 3 liters cow urine, 2 kg pulse crop
powder, 1 kg jiggery, and 200 liters water.
Jaggery, or molasses, is one of the most
important ingredients for making liquid manure. It attracts and feeds microorganisms,
which will digest the contents to improve the solution. For nearly any kind of
liquid manure or compost it is important that it is alive (Damdul 2012). In the
liquid manure there should be a white fungus growing and you can
almost see the solution moving back and forth with microbial life.
After mashing the jaggery and blending it
with water, it is then blended with some ground pulses with some water. Once
these steps are both completed you can begin adding the cow urine and cow dung
to a large container. I expected to use a shovel or bucket to get the cow dung
but Damdul taught me that hands work better, and as far as getting the urine,
all you do is stick a water bottle in a bucket of urine until it is full and
then repeat. I hear that cow urine and dung is pretty clean but I never thought
I would be picking it up with my bare hands.
After
everything is added to the container (the dung, urine, pulses, and jaggery) we
filled the rest up with water. I stirred it every couple of days to homogenize
the solution. After only a day or two the healthy fungus began to grow and
continued to grow exponentially for about a week. After a couple weeks we used
the solution to feed some black pepper cuttings that were to be purchased in
only a week.
Pesticides
“A pesticide is any substance used to kill,
repel, or control certain forms of plant or animal life that are considered to
be pests (http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pesticides/index.cfm)”. On the ORTC farm natural pesticides are
made out of custard apple leaf, lantana, bougainvillea, neem, and cow urine. All
of the ingredients are found on the farm or along the roads of Bylakuppe. The
process begins by collecting 1 kg of each of the leafy ingredients and chopping
them into tiny pieces. We did this by placing a four inches by four inches piece
of wood on a tarp, gathering each plant separately, placing it on the 4x4 and
using a sickle to make the leaves into quarter size pieces. After we had
chopped each of the different plants, we added it to a large barrel and added
about 6 gallons of cow urine. After a few days the concoction would be ready to
spray on the plants.
Composting
Composting is
a way to make organic waste material into a concentrated, generally improved
product that can give nutrient balance to the soil (EPA 2012). On the ORTC they
demonstrate four different types of compost. The first is Zero Cost Vermi Compost,
which can be used by those who do not have the funds to build a pit with walls.
This type of composting is done by digging a 4-inch pit in the ground and then
adding the composting materials. Second, Low Cost Vermi Compost is done by
stacking a couple layers of brick, creating a 6- to 8-inch deep composting
area. Third, Cadappa Vermi Compost is done by creating a cement structure
creating a 1-½ feet deep area for composting. Lastly, Structure Vermi
composting is made by using cement and brick to form an approximately 2-3 foot wide
and deep composting area. The point of displaying these different types of
composting is to show organic farmers that no matter how rich or poor you are
composting is always possible. Each of the different types of composting takes
varying amounts of time (the deeper the compost, the longer the amount of time)
but if you continue to feed and care for the compost you can have a constant
supply. The ORTC tends to use the Cadappa Vermi Compost because it creates a
large enough supply for the fields and is a little quicker than the Structure
Vermi Compost in producing a high quality product. Damdul once explained that
they make the compost out of 4-inch layer of dry goods, 2-inch layer of greens,
and then pour slurry over this mixture, and finally repeat the layer. After
years of testing this is what has worked best.
Each of the
farmers I interviewed emphasized the importance of compost for both organic and
non-organic farms. It helps replace the nutrients and minerals in the soil
(Renzin 2012). In Tibet compost is also very important for small family farms
and community farms but the large difference is that instead of using cow dung
they use human dung. Farmers in Tibet tend to use human dung, ashes of cow
dung, and fine silt from floodwaters to fertilize the soil. Phurbu (2012) says
that he purchases warming compost from the Mysore zoo and Lhakpa makes his own
by using cattle dung but whatever the case homemade or bought compost it is
very important to the Bylakuppe farmers.
Conclusion
Originally
farming in Tibet was minimal and very difficult but now that these Tibetans
have left their home to seek religious freedom they have come to adjust to the
vastly different environment of Bylakuppe, India. The Tibetan refugees came to
Bylakuppe in 1961 and began farming immediately. They set up watering systems,
animal husbandry, electric/gas systems, and learned to farm using only their
hands. They have learned and developed techniques including vegetative
propagation, the making of liquid manures, compost and pesticides. The ORTC has
taken the Dalai Llama’s imperative into action and is continually striving to
share their specific organic techniques, but economic realities often
discourage farmers from participating in organic farming.
Works Cited
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